2023 Solved Old Paper (BOT - 203) New
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Secondary Center of Origin:- A geographical area which has maximum diversity of a plant species, but do not have wild relatives, called as secondary center of origin.
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Cryopreservation:- This technique involves the storage of biological plant tissue for conservation at ultra-low temperatures (−196 °C), mostly using liquid nitrogen.
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Spices and Condiments:- Spices are gotten from parts of plants while condiments are made from spices and other ingredients. Spices are added during the preparation of a meal. Condiments are added after the preparation of a meal. Spices can not serve as a garnish but condiments can serve as a garnish or even a side meal.
Examples:-i. Cinnamon (Dalchini)
ii. Cloves (Laung)
iii. Fennel (Saunf)
iv. Cumin (Jira)
v. Coriander (Dhania)
vi. Saffron (kesar)
vii. Cardamom (Chhoti Elaichi)
viii. Fenugreek (Methi)
ix. Akaraka
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Caffeine:-
> Coffee beans are roasted for developing the aroma, flavour and colour and finally ground before they reach to the consumer.
> “Beans” contain caffeine (0.75 to 1.5%), a volatile oil, glucose, dextrins, proteins and a fatty oil.
> Caffeine provide stimulating effect while the volatile oil (caffeole) is responsible for aroma and flavour.
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Pharmacognosy:- It is the study of medicines or crude drugs produced from natural sources such as plants, microbes, and animals. It includes analysis of their biological, chemical, biochemical, and physical properties.
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Alkaloids in Opium:-
> The important alkaloids obtained from the dried latex of the opium plant are morphine, codeine, papaverine and narcotine.
> Morphine is a powerful analgesic, narcotic and stimulant.
> Besides many European countries, India and China are two great sufferors of opium.
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Periwinkle:-
Botanical Name:- Catharanthus roseus
Family:- Apocynaceae
Economic Importance:-
> Plant is used in cancer and diabetes; root paste is used in septic wounds.
> Root decoction is used in fever.
> Leaves are used in menorrhagia.
> Leaf juice is used in blood dysentery.
> The decoction of leaf is used for babies in gripping pain while the latex is useful in scabies.
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Safed musli:-
Botanical Name:- Chlorophytum borivilianum
Family:- Liliaceae
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Ethnobotany:- The term ethno botany was coined by J.W. Harshberger in 1895 to include the study of plants used by the primitive and aboriginal people.
Definition:- According to Schultes (1962), ethno botany is defined as the study of the relationships between the people of a primitive society and plants.
Aim and Objective:-
> Proper documentation of indigenous knowlegde about medicinal plants.
> Preservation of unwritten traditional knwoledge about herbal plants.
> Conservation of our national heritage before its extinction.
> To create awareness about its role in cultural social and health of people.
> To train people or students for utilization and conservation of medicinal plants.
> To increase in manufacture of herbal drugs.
> Research and job oppurtunities.
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Ethnic Groups:- Ethnic Group is group of people who share a similar culture (beliefs, values, and behaviors), language, religion, ancestry, or other characteristic that is often handed down from one generation to the next.
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1. Mustard:-
Botanical Name:- Brassica campestris
Family:- Cruciferae or Brassicaceae
Introduction:-
> It is an herb and is grown as an oil seed crop mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar and Assam.
> The oil content is 32 to 40%.
> Erucic acid is the characteristic fatty acid of mustard oil.
> The oil is extracted by expression or solvent.
Economic Botany:-
> The oil is used for cooking and burning.
> It is also used in ayurvedic medicines as liniment or for massage in paralytic diseases and in gum diseases.
> It is used in tanning process.
> The oil cake is used as cattle feed and as a fertilizer.
2. Groundnut:-
Botanical Name:- Arachis hypogaea
Family:- Papilionaceae
Introduction:-
> Groundnut, a native to Brazil, is an important source of oil.
> It is a low growing herb of tropical and sub-tropical regions.
> The crop is largely grown in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Rajasthan.
> The oil is expressed from seeds both by hydraulic presses and expellers.
> Oil content of seeds varies from 40 to 50%.
> It is also rich in phosphorus and vitamins.
> Oil contains mainly oleic acid.
Economic Botany:-
> It is predominantly used for culinary purposes.
> It is used for the manufacture of vegetable ghee by hydrogenation.
> The oil is used as a laxative and emollient.
> It is also used in soap making, in leather dressings, furniture creams and in making shaving creams, cold creams, candles etc.
> The oil cakes are used as feed for animals and as a manure.
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Centers of origin of Cultivated plants:-
• According to De Candolle (1886)
i. Cultivated plants originate from wild plants.
ii. Cultivated plants originate in those geographical area in which their wild relatives are found.
iii. De Candolle published a book:- "Origin of Cultivated Plants"
• N. I. Vavilov (1887 - 1943):-
i. He was a Russian Geneticist and Agronomist.
ii. He continued research on center of origin up to 10 years from 1920 to 1930.
iii. According to Vavilov, plant diversities are found in a geographical are isolated by hills, desert and rivers.
• Definition:- A geographical area which has maximum diversity of a plant species, called as center of origin.
Types of centers of origin:-
• Primary Center of Origin:- A geographical area which has maximum diversity as well as wild relatives of a plant species, called as primary center of origin.
• Secondary Center of Origin:- A geographical area which has maximum diversity of a plant species, but do not have wild relatives, called as secondary center of origin.
• Diversity centers are restricted between 20°N and 45°S on both side of equator.
8 Centers of Origin:- Vavilov made 8 centers of origin -
i. China:- It is largest and oldest center of origin. 136 plants originate in China.
ii. Indian Center:- This center is further divided into 2 sub-centers-
• Indo - Burma:- It includes India and Burma. 136 plants originate in this sub-center.
• Indo - Malaya:- It includes Java, Sumatra, Malaya and Philippines. 55 plants originate in this sub-center.
iii. Central Asia:- It includes Punjab, Jammu - Kashmir, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. 43 plants originate in this center.
iv. Minor Asia (Near Eastern) (Persian Center):- It is also called as fertile crescent of Mesopotamia. It includes Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Israel. 83 plants originate in this center.
v. Mediterranean Center:- It includes Portugal, Spain, France, Austria and Italy. 84 plants originate in this center.
vi. Ethiopian Center (Abyssinian Center):- It includes African country Ethiopia and hilly country Eritrea. 38 plants originate in this center.
Note:- Above 6 centers are collectively known as "Old World".
vii. Central America (Mesoamerican Center) (Mexican Center):- It includes south Mexico. 49 plants originate in this center.
viii. South America:- It includes Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Brazil . 62 plants originate in this center.
Note:- Last 2 centers are collectively known as "New World".
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Pulses and Forage Legumes:-
> A legume refers to any plant from the Fabaceae family that would include its leaves, stems, and pods. A pulse is the edible seed from a legume plant. > Pulses include beans, lentils, and peas. For example, a pea pod is a legume, but the pea inside the pod is the pulse.
> Forage legumes are mostly used as cut fodder or grazed pasture. Fodder may be fed directly to livestock or used after preservation as fermented green matter (silage and haylage) or dried for products like hay, pellets or cube concentrates. Pastures may be grazed directly or cut and used in feed rations for livestock.
Origin of Mung Crop :-
1. Introduction:-
· Common Names:- Mung, Mungbean, Green Gram
· Botanical Name:- Vigna radiata
Initially mung's botanical name was Phaseolus aureus, which was later changed to Vigna radiata by Wilczek.
· Family:- Leguminosae or Fabaceae
· Sub family:- Pepilionaceae
· Chromosome Numbers:- 2n = 2x = 22
· The root system of moong plant is deep which acts to bind soil particles. Thus it prevents soil erosion.
2. Center of origin:-
· Moong is the origin of India.
· Cultivated species is originated from a wild ancestor Vigna radiata var. sublobata.
3. Sub-species:- According to Bose (1932) Vigna radiata can be further divided into 40 different types. This classification is based on the shape of the leaf, the color of the flower, the color of the pod, and the color of the seed. The following characters or differences are found in them-
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4. Pollination:-
Ø Naturally, mung is a self-pollinated crop.
Ø Flowers in mung open between 6 am to 8 am and remain opened till 11 am.
Ø The dehiscence of the anthers occurs at 9 o'clock at night and the dehiscence is complete by 3 o'clock in the morning.
Ø The cleistogamy is found in the flowers of mung, that is, both the stamens and carpels remain enclosed in petals of the flower. Therefore there is 100% self-pollination.
· Fruit:- Pod or Legume which are 6 - 10 cm long. A pod contains 7 - 11 seeds. The seeds are dark green in colour.
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Sugarcane:-
Botanical Name:- Saccharum officinarum
Family:- Gramineae
Origin:-
> S. officinarum (Noble cane ) – New Guinea
> S. barberi & S. sinensis (Both are Indian cane) – North east India
Economic Importance:-
> Sugarcane is a cash crop gives ready cash to the farmers.
> It is mainly used for manufacture of jaggery (gul) and sugar.
> It is used for preparation of juice (raswanti), syrup and also for chewing purpose.
> Various by – products like bagasse, immature tops, molasses, pressmud cake etc obtained from cane are used for different purposes.
> Immature green tops are used as fodder.
> Bagasse is used as fuel and for making paper.
> Molasses is used for preparing alcohol and other chemicals
> Pressmud cake is used as manure
> Trash is used for thatching of huts, mulching and composting.
> The stubbles are used as fuel or for making compost.
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Coriander (Dhania):-
Botanical Name:- Coriandrum sativum
Family:- Umbbelliferae or Apliaceae
Economic Importance:-
> Fruits and leaves of this aromatic herb are widely used as condiment for flavouring curries and soups.
> It is cultivated on a large scale in U.P., M.P., Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and-Rajasthan.
> It is also used for flavouring purposes in several bakery preparations, liquors, tobacco products and several articles used as food.
> Coriander oil is also used in some perfumes.
> Its fresh leaves are used in preparing delicious chutneys.
> In several medicines, coriander fruits are used as stimulant, stomachic and carminative.
> Coriander fruits also serve as a good heart tonic.
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Potato:-
Botanical Name:- Solanum Tuberosum
Origin:- South America
Economic Importance:-
> Potato is an important cash crop which gives ready cash to farmers.
> It is said to be ‘complete food’ as it contains carbohydrates, proteins, vit. B. vit. C and minerals like P, Ca and Fe required for body growth.
> It is one of the major vegetable crop of the world.
> It is the richest source of starch.
> Its calorific value is high.
> It produces more food per unit area than any cereal crop within short period.
> In India it is used as vegetable alone or mixed with other vegetables.
> Various products prepared form potato are chips, finger chips, cubes, flour etc.
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Fenugreek (Methi):-
Botanical name:- Trigonella foenum-graceum
Family:- Fabaceae
Economic Importance:-
> It is used as spice and for flavouring food.
> Seeds contain steroidal substance diosgenin.
> In Egypt, Ethiopiea, Arab, etc. Fenugreek is an ingredient of Bread, hulba, Abish etc.
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Saffron (kesar):-
Botanical Name:- Crocus sativus
Family:- Iridaceae
Economic Importance:- It is a very low-yield crop, which makes it an expensive food ingredient. Stigma and styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in food.
> Colouring agent (food dye)
> Flavouring agent
> Anti-spasmodic
> Stimulant
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Cloves (Laung):-
Botanical Name:- Syzygium aromaticum syn. Eugenia caryophyllata (Laung).
Family:- Myrtaceae
Economic Importance:-
> These are the dried flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum.
> These are used as spice and also as a strong aromatic, stimulant and carminative substance.
> These are used in indigestion, vomiting and stopping nausea.
> It is one of the ingredients of betelnut-chew.
> An essential oil (clove oil) is obtained from cloves which is well-known for its antiseptic and preservative properties. It is used in pickles, confectionery and for fermenting beverages.
> Oil is an important ingredient of dentifrices, gargles, chewing gums, toilet water, soaps and perfumery.
> In embryological and histological works, the oil is used as a clearing agent.
> Clove cigarettes are used in Java and some other countries.
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Cumin (Jira):-
Botanical Name:- Cuminum cyminum
Family:- Umbelliferae or Apiaceae
Economic Importance:-
> Cumin plants are attractive annual herbs with small pinkish flowers.
> Fruits are elongated, oval and light brown or light yellow coloured.
> Fruits are used as an essential flavouring material in curries, soups, cakes, pickles, etc.
> Oil from its fruits is used in perfumery and also for flavouring beverages.
> Being a native of Mediterranean region, cumin is now grown on a large scale in Southern Europe and India. In India, it is cultivated largely in Punjab and U.P.
> It is used medicinally as stomachic, carminative and stimulant.
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Guggul:-
Botanical Name:- Commiphora wightii
Family:- Burseraceae
Economic Importance:-
> Commiphora wightii is sought for its gummy resin, which is harvested from the plant's bark through the process of tapping.
> In India and Pakistan, guggul is cultivated commercially.
> The resin of C. wightii, known as gum guggulu, has a fragrance similar to that of myrrh and is commonly used in incense and perfumes. It is the same product that was known in Hebrew, ancient Greek and Latin sources as bdellium.
> Guggul is used in Ayurveda remedies and it is mentioned in Ayurvedic texts dating back to 600 BC.
> It is often sold as a herbal supplement.
> The gum can be purchased in a loosely packed form called dhoop, an incense from India, which is burned over hot coals. This produces a fragrant, dense smoke. It is also sold in the form of incense sticks and dhoop cones which can be burned directly.
> Commiphora wightii has been a key component in ancient Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine.
> The extract of gum guggul, called gugulipid, guggulipid, or guglipid, has been used in Unani and Ayurvedic medicine, for nearly 3,000 years in India.
> One chemical ingredient in the extract is the steroid guggulsterone, which acts as an antagonist of the farnesoid X receptor, once believed to result in decreased cholesterol synthesis in the liver.
> However, several studies have been published that indicate no overall reduction in total cholesterol occurs using various dosages of guggulsterone and levels of low-density lipoprotein ("bad cholesterol") increased in many people.
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Sankh Pushpi:-
Botanical Name:- Convolvulus prostratus
Family:- Convolvulaceae
Economic Importance:-
i. Benefits for brain:- Shankhpushpi is one of the best brain tonics which has a protective effect on memory and cognition. It also prevents memory loss and age-related neurodegeneration and has been found to be effective in reducing anxiety and depression.
ii. Improves skin health:- Shankpushpi penetrates deep into the skin, nourishing and rejuvenating it so your skin shines with a healthy and natural glow. Being an antioxidant, it reduces oxidative stress and delays the first signs of skin ageing such as wrinkles and dark spots.
iii. Benefits for stomach:- Shankhpushpi is traditionally used to improve digestion process and prevent dysentery. Research studies suggest that it is helpful in protecting the stomach lining in case of peptic ulcers.
iv. For hyperthyroidism:- Recent studies indicate the anti-thyroid properties of shankhpushpi. It reduces the levels of thyroid hormones in case of stress, thereby helping in the management of hyperthyroidism.
v. Benefits for heart:- It has been evidenced that ethanolic extracts of shankhpushpi helps in reducing the levels of non-esterified fatty acids, the major cause of morbidity related to cardiac arrest. This herb also reduces cholesterol and helps manage blood pressure, which are two of the major risk factors for heart diseases.
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Arjun:-
Botanical Name:- Terminalia arjuna
Family:- Combretaceae
Economic Importance:- Arjuna is best known as one of the foremost Ayurvedic herbs for supporting all areas of heart health. Here are a few of arjuna's remarkable benefits when it comes to promoting cardiovascular wellness:
i. Strong heart function and healthy circulation:- Arjuna strengthens and tones the circulatory system, rejuvenates the soft tissues, and promotes proper function of the heart muscle.
ii. Healthy flow of blood:- Arjuna's properties support the maintenance of healthy cholesterol levels already within the normal range, balanced blood pressure, and proper coagulation in the blood.
iii. Emotional wellness:- Arjuna has also been traditionally used to support the emotional heart, promoting balance for those experiencing grief and sadness.
iv. Balanced lungs:- With its affinity for the chest, arjuna can balance excess kapha and pitta in the lungs for clear, calm breathing.
v. Healthy liver and skin:- Arjuna helps reduce excess pitta in the liver and skin, supporting proper liver function and a healthy, clear complexion.
vi. Comfortable digestion:- When taken as a tea, arjuna has been used to support healthy digestion.11
vii. Healthy reproductive tissues:- Arjuna’s astringency can support healthy and balanced reproductive tissue, known in Ayurveda as shukra dhatu.
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Aloe:-
Botanical Name:- Aloe vera
Family:- Liliaceae
Economic Importance:-
> Two substances from Aloe vera – a clear gel and its yellow latex – are used to manufacture commercial products.
> Aloe gel typically is used to make topical medications for skin conditions, such as burns, wounds, frostbite, rashes, psoriasis, cold sores, or dry skin.
> Aloe latex is used individually or manufactured as a product with other ingredients to be ingested for relief of constipation.
> Aloe latex may be obtained in a dried form called resin or as "aloe dried juice".
> There is conflicting evidence regarding whether Aloe vera is effective as a treatment for wounds or burns.
> There is some evidence that topical use of aloe products might relieve symptoms of certain skin disorders, such as psoriasis, acne, or rashes, but topical application may cause an allergic reaction in some people.
> Aloe vera gel is used commercially as an ingredient in yogurts, beverages, and some desserts, but at high or prolonged doses, ingesting aloe latex or whole leaf extract can be toxic. Use of topical aloe vera in small amounts is likely to be safe.
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Brahmi Booti:-
Botanical Name:- Centella asiatica
Family:- Apiaceae or Umbelliferae
Economic Importance:-
> Brahmi / gotu kola (Centella asiatica) is one of the most beloved mental rejuvenatives in the Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia.
> Best known for its long and impressive history of use for enhancing intellect and mental acuity, it also soothes the nervous system, purifies the blood, and promotes healthy skin and hair.
> Leaf extract is taken orally to cure dysentery and improve memory power.
> It was historically known as “Snow plant” for the reason of its cooling properties. About 4 teaspoonfuls of leaf juice by squeezing about 50 leaves between palms is taken orally in the morning for 2-3 weeks for its alleged cooling property to body and stomach.
> Crushed leaf and root extract is applied to the affected parts to kill germs from wounds.
> Decoction of leaves is also applied to cure leprotic wound.
> Tea of the plants are taken for hypertension, diarrhoea and urinary tract infections.
> The dried herb is used as a detoxicant, diuretic and to lower blood pressure and decrease heart rate.
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Antamool, Damabuti:-
Botanical Name:- Tylophora indica
Family:- Asclepiadaceae
Economic Importance:-
> Antamool is used in treating bronchial asthma and allergic rhinitis.
> It has diaphoretic and expectorant properties.
> The dried leaves and roots are often used as substitute for Ipecacuanha (Cephalis ipecacuanha).
> Roots and leaves of the plant contain several alkaloids including tylophorine, tylophorinine and tylophrinidine.
> The major alkaloid, tylophorine found in T. indica possesses several properties, such as immunosuppressive, antitumour, antifeedant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiamoebic, diuretic and hepatoprotective activities.
> In addition to this, tylophorine provides positive stimulation to adrenal cortex.
> Biotechnological production of tylophorine was fulfilled by inducing hairy roots mediated by Agrobacterium rhizogenes (A4 strain). It was followed by its growth in liquid suspension culture that could yield maximum biomass and tylophorine production. This type of liquid suspension culture yielded 9.8 ± 0.21 mgL−1 tylophorine within 4–6 weeks of incubation.
> Maceration technique employed for the extraction of tylophorine was the most viable and efficient protocol.
> Although many reports are available regarding the biotechnological production of tylophorine, its competent and economic production still continues as a problematic issue.
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Ethnic Groups of Rajasthan:- Ethnic Group is group of people who share a similar culture (beliefs, values, and behaviors), language, religion, ancestry, or other characteristic that is often handed down from one generation to the next.
Examples:- Rajputs, Brahmins, Jats, Muslim Settlers, Bishnois, Bhils, Minas, Gujjars, Tribals, Rebaries, Gavarias, Banjaras, Charans, Gadia Lohars
Tribe:- A social group made up of many families, clans, or generations that share the same language, customs, and beliefs.
Major tribes and their life styles:-
> Rajasthan tribals form approximately twelve percent of the total population of Rajasthan. In fact, they were the original inhabitants of the area presently called Rajasthan.
> The Bhils and the Minas are the principal tribes of Rajasthan, India.
> Amongst the smaller tribes are Sahariyas, Gaduliya Lohars and the Garasias.
> The common traits shared by the different tribes of Rajasthan link their past together.
> Each tribe is distinguished by difference in their costumes, festivals and ornaments.
Some of the main tribes of Rajasthan are:
1. Bhils:-
- Bhils, the principal tribe of Rajasthan, comprise approximately 39% of the total tribal population in Rajasthan.
- Banswara area is dominated by this tribal group.
- They were believed to be fine archers and some Bhil bowmen found a mention in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
- In order to maintain their number, the Bhils mingled with the Rajputs.
- A number of Bhils gather at the Baneshwar festival held in Dungarpur.
- They rejoice by singing and dancing at the festival.
- Yet another festive time for Bhils is Holi. Superstition is deep rooted in the Bhil culture.
2. Minas:-
- Minas, the second largest tribe in Rajasthan, dominate the area of Shekhawati and other eastern parts of Rajasthan.
- They originally resided at the Indus Valley civilization.
- Minas have tall and athletic built and sharp features including large eyes, light brown complexion and thick lips.
- Alike the Bhils, the literacy rate amongst the Minas is low.
- They are married in quite young years.
3. Gadiya Lohars:-
- Originally a martial tribe, Gadiya Lohars derived their name from the attractive bullock carts popularly called gadis.
- Nowadays, they are nomadic blacksmiths.
- They left their homeland after Maharana Pratap was ousted from Chittorgarh by Emperor Akbar.
4. Garasias:-
- Garasias, small Rajput tribe resides along the Abu Road area in southern Rajasthan.
- Marriage through elopement is an interesting custom followed by this tribal group.
5. Sahariyas:-
- Sahariyas, the jungle dwellers, are found in Kota, Dungarpur and Sawai Madhopur areas o southern Rajasthan.
- Thought to be of Bhil origin, they are considered the most backward tribe in Rajasthan.
- Hunting and fishing are the main sources of earning a livelihood.
6. Damors:- Damors, chiefly, cultivators and manual laborers migrated from Gujarat to Rajasthan and settled in the Udaipur and Dungarpur districts.
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Ethnobotany:- The term ethno botany was coined by J.W. Harshberger in 1895 to include the study of plants used by the primitive and aboriginal people.
Definition:- According to Schultes (1962), ethno botany is defined as the study of the relationships between the people of a primitive society and plants.
Aim and Objective:-
> Proper documentation of indigenous knowlegde about medicinal plants.
> Preservation of unwritten traditional knwoledge about herbal plants.
> Conservation of our national heritage before its extinction.
> To create awareness about its role in cultural social and health of people.
> To train people or students for utilization and conservation of medicinal plants.
> To increase in manufacture of herbal drugs.
> Research and job oppurtunities.
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Study of Ethnobotany:-
> In India the ethnobotanical works in an organized way were started by Botanical Survey of India in 1969. Since then uses of plants by the tribal are being recorded for a variety of purposes (Jain, 1981).
> Considerable number of works have been done on several aspects of plants viz. ethnomedicine, dyes, tans, narcotics, fiber, timber etc, by Bhandari (1974), Jain (1981a,b), Singh and Pandey (1980,1981,1982), Katewa and Guria (1997), Sebastian and Bhandari (1984a), Nargas and Trivedi (1999) and various other scientists.
1. Collection of ethnobotanical Data:- Collection and Compilation of Socioeconomic data of the study area is essentially required for ethnobotanical studies. For Socio- economic study following parameters may be considered.
i. Profile of the households (Type of family).
ii. Religion and caste profile (ST, SC, OBC, others).
iii. Agricultural Land, Crops cultivated and Livestock‟s.
iv. Irrigation and transport facilities.
v. Drinking water and toilet facilities.
vi. Availability of Electricity and use of fuel.
vii. Awareness about local health tradition among the tribes.
viii. Knowledge about medicinal plants for home remedies.
ix. Use of home remedies
x. Assessment of treatment other than home remedies.
xi. Comparison of cost of home remedies and other treatment method adopted by tribal.
Ethnobotanical data may be collected in different manners i.e. by enquiry, observation, interview
and participation.
2. Categorization of Collected data:- The methodology used for collecting the ethno botanical information was put into following three major categories:-
i. Direct approach:- This included the intensive field surveys among tribal and remote areas of a region.
ii. Indirect Approach:- It included collection of information from literature, museums, herbarium etc.
iii. Miscellaneous:- Some information was also collected after discussion with the non-tribal e.g.
village headman, spiritual leader, ozha, vaidhya, hakims, priests, teacher, physicians, veterinary,
doctor, social worker, postal authorities and Ayurvedic doctors etc.
3. Ethnobotanical Survey:- The ethnobotanical survey includes plant collections, informal interviews with the inhabitants and the implementation of the ethnographic method of free listing and semi-structured interviews (Weller and Romney, 1998) or it may be done by following the methodology of Cotton (1996).
The survey may involve individuals like
i. Village Head man and old experienced person /village resource persons.
ii. Middle men or interpreter.
iii. Men and women working in the field
iv. Men and women in weekly markets and in other common places.
v. Local forest officers.
vi. Baidyas, Sirahas, Guniyas, Gaytas and knowledgeable women‟s.
vii. Traditional Birth attendant (Dai).
viii. Traditional Bone setter (haddi baidh) and Maatipujari of village.
4. Documentation of the Information:- The documentation of the information obtained from folk healers and Baidyas may be documented under following heads:
i. Name of the disease
ii. Name of the plant
iii. Vernacular name
iv. Family name
v. Plant part used.
vi. Habit of the plant
vii. Other ingredients used
viii. Drug preparation
ix. Drug application and its effectiveness
x. Cost of treatment / episode
- Information may be documented disease wise use of plants/plant parts for the preparation of
drug.
- The cost of the treatment per episode/per disease should be noted.
- The information may be cross checked by the other informants in the same locality for verification of medicinal claims by the first informants.
- This practice resulted credibility of data regarding the use of plants and statements of informants.
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Origin of Wheat:-
1. Introduction:-
· Common Name:- Wheat
· Botanical Name:- Triticum aestivum
· Family:- Poaceae or Gramineae
2. Species and Chromosome Numbers:- According to Feldman and Sears (1981) wheat has 13 diploid, 12 tetraploid and 5 hexaploid species. Some of the main species are given in the table below -
Note:- 3 species of wheat are cultivated in India -
i. Triticum aestivum:- 95%
ii. Triticum durum:- 4%
iii. Triticum dicoccum:- 1%
3. Center of Origin:-
· Primary Center of Origin:- Near East (Asia Minor)
· Secondary Center of Origin:- Ethiopia
4. Genetic Evolution of Wheat:- Today, hexaploid wheat Triticum aestivum is the most cultivated species in the world. It has been artificially developed by distant hybridization. For this, the following 2 steps were used -
i. Firstly, the cross of the diploid wheat Triticum monococcum is made with the diploid species Triticum searsii, which results in the production of tetraploid wheat Triticum turgidum.
ii. Now the cross of this tetraploid wheat Triticum turgidum is made with diploid Triticum tauschii, which results in the production of hexaploid wheat Triticum aestivum.
Cultivation of Wheat:-
1. Climate Requirements:-
> Optimum Temperature Range:-
i. 20 – 25°C (Ideal germination of wheat seed)
ii. 3.5 – 35°C (Seed germination Temperature range)
iii. 14 – 15°C (Optimum average temperature at the time of maturity)
> Rainfall:- 25 – 150cm/year
> Humidity:- 50-60%
2. Season for Wheat Cultivation in India:- Wheat, in India, is best grown as a rabi or winter season crop since the conditions during that time are conducive for growth and ensures maximum yield.
3. Soil Requirements:- Wheat needs soil with a moderate amount of water holding capacity. Well drained loams and clayey loams are considered to be a good for wheat.
> Salinity level (EC) 6ds/m, Yield is reduced by about 50% at 14ds/m.
> pH 6-8
4. Sowing time:-
> The normal time of sowing of high-yielding cultivars in irrigated areas start in the beginning of November.
> Under specific circumstances, wheat is also sowing in December.
> When wheat is sown beyond December there is a drastic reduction in yield.
> After November, delay in sowing by each day causes reduction of 5kg/ha/day in northeastern parts of the country and 41kg/ha/day in north-western and central parts of the country.
5. Sowing:-
i. Seed treatment:- The seed of loose smut-susceptible varieties should be given solar or hot-water treatment. If the wheat seed is used only for sowing, it can be treated with Vitavax,thyram 2.5 gm/kg seed.
ii. Seed rate:- 90-100 Kg/ha
iii. Row spacing:- 15 - 22.5cm
iv. Depth:- 5-6cm
vi. Method:- Wheat is sown by the following 4 methods:
- Broadcast method
- Behind the plough method
- Drilling method
- Dibbling method
6. Mannures and Fertilizer:- It is desirable that 2 to 3 tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare or some other organic matter is applied 5 or 6 weeks before sowing. The NPK fertilizer requirement of the irrigated wheat crop is as follows:
Nitrogen (N) = 80-120 kg/ha
Phosphorus (P2O5) = 40- 60 kg/ha
Potash (K2O) = 40 kg/ha
Total quantity of Phosphorus and potash and half the quantity of nitrogen should be applied at the time of sowing. Remaining quantity of Nitrogen should be applied at the time of crown root initiation.
7. Water Management:- In wheat cultivation, irrigation requirement depends on various factors viz.
type of soil, variety grown etc. The critical stages of wheat are described below:
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8. Plant Protection:-
a. Weed control:- Generally weeding is done after 1 ½ to 2 months after sowing or weedicides like 2,4 D, Avadex or Nitrofen (Tok E-25) for controling Chenopodium sp, Angallis sp. Asphodelus sp. Phalaris sp. of weeds.
b. Disease control:- DiseasesWheat crops suffer from several diseases causing reduced yield and quality. The major diseases and their chemical control are given below:
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and in storage. Some insets-pests and their control are following:
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10. Yield:- 40-45 q grain and 70-80 q straw/ha may be obtained from dwarf wheat varieties under irrigated areas. Under rainfed condition, 20-25 q grain and 30- 35 q straw/ha may be obtained. From Deshi wheat varieties, 20-30 q grain and 60-70 q straw/ha may be obtained.
Improvement of Wheat:-
1. Pollination:-
Ø Wheat exhibit wind pollination, so versatile anthers are found in its flowers.
Ø Wheat is a self-pollinated crop. It show less than 1% cross pollination. But sometimes 3–4% cross pollination may also occur.
2. Breeding Objectives:-
a. Higher Yield:- The yield in wheat depends on the following factors -
i. Number of ears in unit area
ii. Number of grains per ear
iii. Average weight of grains
Note:- In the 1960s, two varieties of wheat are considered responsible for bringing Green Revolution -
i. Sonora – 64
ii. Lerma rojo
b. Water Lodging Resistance:-
Ø For this, dwarf varieties are developed in wheat.
Ø 3 dwarf varieties of wheat were developed by incorporating Norin - 10 gene into the genome of wheat -
i. Sonora – 63
ii. Sonora – 64
iii. Kalyan sona
c. Disease Resistance:-
Ø Rust disease:- By Puccinia
Ø Smut disease:- By Ustilago
d. Insect Resistance:-
Ø Shoot fly
Ø Hessian fly
Ø Aphids
Ø Termites
e. Quality:-
Ø Quality in wheat is represented by the following factors -
i. Colour of grains
ii. Hardness of grains
iii. Size of grains
iv. Protein content
v. Gluten content
vi. Protein quality
vii. Quality of dough
Ø High amounts of gluten are good for making chapati.
Ø Lysine amino acid is deficient in wheat protein.
Ø Types of Wheat:- 3 main types are -
i. Hard Wheat:- This is normal wheat which is also known as bread wheat. It contains high amounts of Gluten. It is used in making bread or chapati.
ii. Soft Wheat:- It is used in making cakes and pastries.
iii. Durum Wheat:- It is used in making Macaroni and Biscuit.
3. Breeding Methods:-
· A project is underway at DWR (Directorate of Wheat Research), Karnal, Haryana -
AICWBIP = All India Coordinated Wheat and Barley Improvement Project
· There are 4 main breeding methods used in wheat -
a. Introduction
b. Pure line Selection
c. Hybridization
d. Mutation Breeding
a. Introduction:-
Ø Two varieties of wheat were brought to India by the primary introduction -
i. Sonora – 64
ii. Lerma rojo
Ø Two varieties of wheat were developed in India by secondary introduction -
i. Kalyan Sona
ii. Sonalika
b. Pure line Selection:- Many varieties of wheat were developed by this method -
Ø NP – 4, 6, 12
Ø Pb – 8, 9, 11
Ø K – 46, 53, 54
c. Hybridization:-
Ø By the pedigree method, 3 varieties of wheat have been developed-
i. K – 65
ii. WL – 711
iii. Malviya – 12
Ø 2 varieties of wheat have been developed by back cross method -
i. IWP – 72
ii. MLKS – 11
d. Mutation Breeding:-
Ø Sonora - 64 is a red-grained variety. By mutation through gamma rays the Sharbati Sonara variety has been developed. which is a amber grained variety.
Ø Lerma rojo is also a red-grained variety. By mutation through gamma rays the Pusa Lerma variety has been developed. which is a amber grained variety.
Ans.
1. Tea:-
Botanical Name:- Camellia sinensis Syn. Thea sinensis
Family:- Theaceae
Economic Importance:-
> It is the most common non-alcoholic beverage, used by more than one-half of the world’s population.
> It is obtained from the dried leaves of Camellia sinensis, a native of Assam or China.
> Tea plant is a small shrub with leathery, lanceolate leaves having serrate margin and many oil glands.
> A volatile oil, tannin (13 to 18%), and an alkaloid theine (2-5%), are present in tea.
> Tea leaves, when infused in hot water, dissolve their alkaloid and oil, and the beverage thus resulted has a stimulating effect. If boiled for a longer period, tannin dissolves making the beverage less beneficial.
> India is a leading tea-exporting country.
> For preparing green tea, the leaves are steamed and dried without fermenting, while for black tea the leaves are withered, rolled, fermented and dried.
> Tannins of tea waste are used in plywood industry.
> Assam, Darjeeling, Nilgiris, Dehradun and Kumaon are the main tea-producing regions in India.
2. Coffee:-
Botanical Names:- Coffea arabica (Arabian Coffee); C. canepbora syn. C. robusta (Congo Coffee); C. liberica (Liberian Coffee).
Family:- Rubiaceae
Economic Importance:-
> It is an important non-alcoholic beverage, like tea.
> More than 90% coffee is obtained from the berries of Coffea arabica.
> Coffee beans are roasted for developing the aroma, flavour and colour and finally ground before they reach to the consumer.
> “Beans” contain caffeine (0.75 to 1.5%), a volatile oil, glucose, dextrins, proteins and a fatty oil.
> Caffeine provide stimulating effect while the volatile oil (caffeole) is responsible for aroma and flavour.
> Leaves and fruits of Coffee also contain some alkaloids.
> In India, C. arabica is grown in Nilgiris and Kamataka.
> Seeds of C. canepbora (syn. C. robusta), a robust evergreen shrub, are used in making “instant coffee”.
Ans.
1. Marijuana (Bhang):-
Botanical Name:- Cannabis sativa
Family:- Cannabaceae
Cannabinoids:-
> These are the group of chemicals, which interact with the cannabinoid receptors in the brain. Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the plant Cannabis sativa.
> Leaves, flowers tops and resins of Cannabis are used in combinations in production of marijuana, hashish, charas, ganja, etc.
> These drugs are taken by inhalation and oral ingestion and affect cardiovascular system of the body.
2. Opium Poppy (Afim or Post):-
Botanical Name:- Papaver somniferum
Family:- Papaveraceae
Economic Importance:-
> It is a herb, now grown on a large scale in UP., Jullundur and Hoshiarpur districts of Punjab, M.P. and Rajasthan.
> Opium is the dried juice which exudes from the injured immature capsules of this plant.
> It is highly useful for mankind in relieving the pain, if used in limited doses, mainly due to the presence of some alkaloids. But its heavy doses and to take it as a habit can be so fatal that no other drug has caused so much corruption and tragedy as opium.
> Opium is used to induce sleep, relieve pain and relax spasm.
> Besides other resins and oils, the important alkaloids obtained from the dried latex of the opium plant are morphine, codeine, papaverine and narcotine.
> Morphine is a powerful analgesic, narcotic and stimulant.
> Besides many European countries, India and China are two great sufferors of opium.
Opioids:-
> Opioids or opiates are drugs that bind to opioid receptors present in human central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.
> These have narcotic, analgesic, sedative and astringent effects.
> Heroin commonly called smack is a white, crystalline, odourless and bitter compound. It is obtained by acetylation of morphine and chemically heroin is a diacetylmorphine.
> Morphine is extracted from the latex of poppy plant Papaver somniferum. Generally, taken by snorting and injection. It slows down body function as depresses nervous system. It is an effective sedative and a pain killer, used by patients who underwent surgeries.
3. Tobacco:-
Botanical Name:- Nicotiana tabacum
Family:- Solanaceae
Tobacco:-
> It is obtained from tobacco plant which can be smoked and chewed.
> Tobacco has nicotine which stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and noradrenaline, increasing the blood pressure and heart rate.
> The tobacco chewing has some adverse effects on health.
Effects on Health:-
> Tobacco can induce lung cancer, cancer of urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, oral cancer, etc.
> Smoking increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in the blood and reduces the concentration of haemoglobin bound oxygen. Thus, leads to the oxygen deficiency in the body.
> Addicted people require counselling and medical help to get rid of the habit.
Ans.
Unexploited Plants of Potential Economic Value with reference to Rajasthan:-
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Ans.
Shifting cultivation:- It is a class of primitive subsistence agriculture. In this, a plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with soil and crops are grown. After some time, the land is abandoned and the farmers move to a different place.
> The evil effects of shifting cultivation are devastating and far-reaching in degrading the environment
and ecology of these regions.
> The earlier 15–20 year cycle of shifting cultivation on a particular land has reduced to 2–3 years now. This has resulted in largescale deforestation, soil and nutrient loss, and invasion by weeds and other
species.
> The indigenous biodiversity has been affected to a large extent.
To mitigate the environmental loss and to provide other alternatives of livelihood to the local population, we have made an attempt in this paper to suggest environmental management options for shifting cultivation areas.
Impact of shifting cultivation:- The shifting cultivation is generally practised in the following sequence:
i. Selecting a forest patch and clear fell the vegetation normally in December and January
ii. Burning of the vegetation. Small, cut-trunks portion and roots are normally not removed. The herbs, shrubs and twigs and branches (slashed vegetation) are burnt in February and March.
iii. Sowing of seeds, by dibbling, generally of cereals, vegetables and oil seeds in April – May.
iv. Continuing cultivation for a few years.
v. Abandoning the cultivated site and shifting to other forest sites
vi. Returning to the former site, and once again practise shifting cultivation on it.
- With reduction in jhum cycle from 20–30 years to 2–3 years, the land under shifting cultivation looses its nutrients and the top soil.
- With reduction in crop yield, the families start moving to other virgin areas.
- Now a stage has come that it has already affected 2.7 million ha of land, and each year 0.45 ha of land fall under shifting cultivation, in northeast India.
