Ans.
Ethnobotany:- The term ethno botany was coined by J.W. Harshberger in 1895 to include the study of plants used by the primitive and aboriginal people.
Definition:- According to Schultes (1962), ethno botany is defined as the study of the relationships between the people of a primitive society and plants.
Aim and Objective:-
> Proper documentation of indigenous knowlegde about medicinal plants.
> Preservation of unwritten traditional knwoledge about herbal plants.
> Conservation of our national heritage before its extinction.
> To create awareness about its role in cultural social and health of people.
> To train people or students for utilization and conservation of medicinal plants.
> To increase in manufacture of herbal drugs.
> Research and job oppurtunities.
Ans.
Wheat:-
· Common Name:- Wheat
· Botanical Name:- Triticum aestivum
· Family:- Poaceae or Gramineae
Ans.
Two Medicinal Plants:-
1. Guggul:-
Botanical Name:- Commiphora wightii
Family:- Burseraceae
2. Sankh Pushpi:-
Botanical Name:- Convolvulus prostratus
Family:- Convolvulaceae
Ans.
Shifting cultivation:- It is a class of primitive subsistence agriculture. In this, a plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with soil and crops are grown. After some time, the land is abandoned and the farmers move to a different place.
> The evil effects of shifting cultivation are devastating and far-reaching in degrading the environment
and ecology of these regions.
> The earlier 15–20 year cycle of shifting cultivation on a particular land has reduced to 2–3 years now. This has resulted in largescale deforestation, soil and nutrient loss, and invasion by weeds and other
species.
> The indigenous biodiversity has been affected to a large extent.
To mitigate the environmental loss and to provide other alternatives of livelihood to the local population, we have made an attempt in this paper to suggest environmental management options for shifting cultivation areas.
Impact of shifting cultivation:- The shifting cultivation is generally practised in the following sequence:
i. Selecting a forest patch and clear fell the vegetation normally in December and January
ii. Burning of the vegetation. Small, cut-trunks portion and roots are normally not removed. The herbs, shrubs and twigs and branches (slashed vegetation) are burnt in February and March.
iii. Sowing of seeds, by dibbling, generally of cereals, vegetables and oil seeds in April – May.
iv. Continuing cultivation for a few years.
v. Abandoning the cultivated site and shifting to other forest sites
vi. Returning to the former site, and once again practise shifting cultivation on it.
- With reduction in jhum cycle from 20–30 years to 2–3 years, the land under shifting cultivation looses its nutrients and the top soil.
- With reduction in crop yield, the families start moving to other virgin areas.
- Now a stage has come that it has already affected 2.7 million ha of land, and each year 0.45 ha of land fall under shifting cultivation, in northeast India.
Ans.
1. Cotton:-
Botanical Names:- Gossypium sp. (G. arboreum, G. barbadense, G. berbaceum and G. hirsutum).
Family:- Malvaceae.
Economic Botany:-
> It is the chief fibre plant which supplies more than 70% of the world consumption of fibres.
> Fibres occur on the seeds in the form of flattened, twisted and tubular hairs.
> Raw cotton consists of cellulose (94%), protein (1.3%), pectic substances (0.9% to 1.2%), water (0.6%), sugar (0.3%) and some pigment traces.
> Chief use of the cotton is in the textile industry. Other uses include stuffing of pillows, cushions, and also in rubber tyre fabrics.
> Short fibres, called linters or fuzz, are used for superior acetates and viscose rayons, cellulose ethers and esters, and nitrocellulose lacquers.
> Hull, the outer covering of cotton seeds, is used for cattle feeding, fertilizers, fillers in plastics, and manufacture of insulating materials.
> A most important semidrying oil (cotton seed oil) is obtained from the seeds of cotton. It is used as a cooking oil. Other uses of this oil include in the preparation of soaps, paints and varnishes, washing powders, artificial leather, glycerine, nitroglycerin, etc.
> Seed cake is used as fertilizer and as cattle feed.
> Gossypium roots are used in some fevers.
> Its seeds are used in diseases like gonorrhoea, catarrh and gleet.
> Leaf juice of G. berbaceum is used in scorpion and snake bites.
> Cotton fibre is also used in paper industry, specially in preparing fine quality paper.
2. Jute:-
Botanical Name:- Corchorus capsularis, C. olitorius.
Family:- Tiliaceae.
Economic Botany:-
> It is a chief fibre-yielding annual shrub.
> Fibres are obtained from the stem of two species, i.e., C. capsularis and C. olitorius.
> It is a bast fibre, obtained from the secondary phloem by the process of retting.
> Jute is cultivated in West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Bihar and U.P.
> Jute fibre is used in making carpets, coarse material, twine, gunny bags, paper and many similar articles.
> Jute forms the base of linoleum and wool carpet industry.
> High quality grease-proof paper is prepared from the fibres of jute sticks. It is used commonly is confectionery industry for wrapping greasy materials.
> Dried leaves of C. capsularis are also used as a remedy for dysentry.
> Besides India, Bangladesh is also a chief jute- producing country of the world.
Ans.
Ethnobotany:- The term ethno botany was coined by J.W. Harshberger in 1895 to include the study of plants used by the primitive and aboriginal people.
Definition:- According to Schultes (1962), ethno botany is defined as the study of the relationships between the people of a primitive society and plants.
Aim and Objective:-
> Proper documentation of indigenous knowlegde about medicinal plants.
> Preservation of unwritten traditional knwoledge about herbal plants.
> Conservation of our national heritage before its extinction.
> To create awareness about its role in cultural social and health of people.
> To train people or students for utilization and conservation of medicinal plants.
> To increase in manufacture of herbal drugs.
> Research and job oppurtunities.
Scope of Ethnobotany:-
> Its scope was much eloborated by Ford(1978) and Faulk(1958).
> In recent years much work in this science has been done in the many countries e.g. India, Africa, America , France, Mexico, U.S.A. etc.
> Ethnobotany has attracted attention during last three decades.
> The scope of Ethnobotany in recent time and failure has been established with the problem of :-
i. Rural health
ii. Drugs are abuses
iii. Social customs
iv. Cottage industries
v. Conservation of ecosystems
vi. Nutrition
vii. Energy
> Recent researches on Ethnobotany have today established linkage between man y special areas like:-
i. Ethnomedicine
ii. Ethnopharmacology
iii. Ethnoveterinary
iv. Ethnonarcotics
v. Ethnobryology
vi. Ethnocosmetic
Study of Ethnobotany:-
> In India the ethnobotanical works in an organized way were started by Botanical Survey of India in 1969. Since then uses of plants by the tribal are being recorded for a variety of purposes (Jain, 1981).
> Considerable number of works have been done on several aspects of plants viz. ethnomedicine, dyes, tans, narcotics, fiber, timber etc, by Bhandari (1974), Jain (1981a,b), Singh and Pandey (1980,1981,1982), Katewa and Guria (1997), Sebastian and Bhandari (1984a), Nargas and Trivedi (1999) and various other scientists.
1. Collection of ethnobotanical Data:- Collection and Compilation of Socioeconomic data of the study area is essentially required for ethnobotanical studies. For Socio- economic study following parameters may be considered.
i. Profile of the households (Type of family).
ii. Religion and caste profile (ST, SC, OBC, others).
iii. Agricultural Land, Crops cultivated and Livestock‟s.
iv. Irrigation and transport facilities.
v. Drinking water and toilet facilities.
vi. Availability of Electricity and use of fuel.
vii. Awareness about local health tradition among the tribes.
viii. Knowledge about medicinal plants for home remedies.
ix. Use of home remedies
x. Assessment of treatment other than home remedies.
xi. Comparison of cost of home remedies and other treatment method adopted by tribal.
Ethnobotanical data may be collected in different manners i.e. by enquiry, observation, interview
and participation.
2. Categorization of Collected data:- The methodology used for collecting the ethno botanical information was put into following three major categories:-
i. Direct approach:- This included the intensive field surveys among tribal and remote areas of a region.
ii. Indirect Approach:- It included collection of information from literature, museums, herbarium etc.
iii. Miscellaneous:- Some information was also collected after discussion with the non-tribal e.g.
village headman, spiritual leader, ozha, vaidhya, hakims, priests, teacher, physicians, veterinary,
doctor, social worker, postal authorities and Ayurvedic doctors etc.
3. Ethnobotanical Survey:- The ethnobotanical survey includes plant collections, informal interviews with the inhabitants and the implementation of the ethnographic method of free listing and semi-structured interviews (Weller and Romney, 1998) or it may be done by following the methodology of Cotton (1996).
The survey may involve individuals like
i. Village Head man and old experienced person /village resource persons.
ii. Middle men or interpreter.
iii. Men and women working in the field
iv. Men and women in weekly markets and in other common places.
v. Local forest officers.
vi. Baidyas, Sirahas, Guniyas, Gaytas and knowledgeable women‟s.
vii. Traditional Birth attendant (Dai).
viii. Traditional Bone setter (haddi baidh) and Maatipujari of village.
4. Documentation of the Information:- The documentation of the information obtained from folk healers and Baidyas may be documented under following heads:
i. Name of the disease
ii. Name of the plant
iii. Vernacular name
iv. Family name
v. Plant part used.
vi. Habit of the plant
vii. Other ingredients used
viii. Drug preparation
ix. Drug application and its effectiveness
x. Cost of treatment / episode
- Information may be documented disease wise use of plants/plant parts for the preparation of
drug.
- The cost of the treatment per episode/per disease should be noted.
- The information may be cross checked by the other informants in the same locality for verification of medicinal claims by the first informants.
- This practice resulted credibility of data regarding the use of plants and statements of informants.
Ans.
Genetic diversity:- Genetic diversity is the product of recombination of genetic material in the process of inheritance. It changes with time and space.
> Sexual reproduction is important in maintaining genetic diversity as it gives unique offspring by combining genes of parents.
> Mutation of genes, genetic drift and gene flow are also responsible for genetic diversity.
Importance of Genetic Diversity:-
i. Genetic diversity gives rise to different physical attributes to the individual and capacity to adapt to stress, diseases and unfavourable environmental conditions.
ii. Environmental changes that are natural or due to human intervention, lead to the natural selection and survival of the fittest. Hence, due to genetic diversity, the varieties that are susceptible, die and the ones who can adapt to changes will survive.
iii. Genetic diversity is important for a healthy population by maintaining different varieties of genes that might be resistant to pests, diseases or other conditions.
iv. New varieties of plants can be grown by cross-breeding different genetic variants and produce plants with desirable traits like disease resistance, increased tolerance to stress.
v. Genetic diversity reduces the recurrence of undesirable inherited traits.
vi. Genetic diversity ensures that at least there are some survivors of a species left.
Genetic Diversity Examples:-
i. Different varieties of rose flower, wheat, etc.
ii. There are more than 50,000 varieties of rice and more than a thousand varieties of mangoes found in India.
iii. Different varieties of medicinal plant Rauvolfia vomitoria present in different Himalayan ranges differ in the amount of chemical reserpine produced by them.
Centers of origin of Cultivated plants:-
• According to De Candolle (1886)
i. Cultivated plants originate from wild plants.
ii. Cultivated plants originate in those geographical area in which their wild relatives are found.
iii. De Candolle published a book:- "Origin of Cultivated Plants"
• N. I. Vavilov (1887 - 1943):-
i. He was a Russian Geneticist and Agronomist.
ii. He continued research on center of origin up to 10 years from 1920 to 1930.
iii. According to Vavilov, plant diversities are found in a geographical are isolated by hills, desert and rivers.
• Definition:- A geographical area which has maximum diversity of a plant species, called as center of origin.
Types of centers of origin:-
• Primary Center of Origin:- A geographical area which has maximum diversity as well as wild relatives of a plant species, called as primary center of origin.
• Secondary Center of Origin:- A geographical area which has maximum diversity of a plant species, but do not have wild relatives, called as secondary center of origin.
• Diversity centers are restricted between 20°N and 45°S on both side of equator.
8 Centers of Origin:- Vavilov made 8 centers of origin -
i. China:- It is largest and oldest center of origin. 136 plants originate in China.
ii. Indian Center:- This center is further divided into 2 sub-centers-
• Indo - Burma:- It includes India and Burma. 136 plants originate in this sub-center.
• Indo - Malaya:- It includes Java, Sumatra, Malaya and Philippines. 55 plants originate in this sub-center.
iii. Central Asia:- It includes Punjab, Jammu - Kashmir, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. 43 plants originate in this center.
iv. Minor Asia (Near Eastern) (Persian Center):- It is also called as fertile crescent of Mesopotamia. It includes Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Israel. 83 plants originate in this center.
v. Mediterranean Center:- It includes Portugal, Spain, France, Austria and Italy. 84 plants originate in this center.
vi. Ethiopian Center (Abyssinian Center):- It includes African country Ethiopia and hilly country Eritrea. 38 plants originate in this center.
Note:- Above 6 centers are collectively known as "Old World".
vii. Central America (Mesoamerican Center) (Mexican Center):- It includes south Mexico. 49 plants originate in this center.
viii. South America:- It includes Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Brazil . 62 plants originate in this center.
Note:- Last 2 centers are collectively known as "New World".
Ans.
Origin of Maize :-
1. Introduction:-
> Common Name:- Maize, Corn
> Botanical Name:- Zea mays
> Family:- Poaceae or Gramineae
> Maize has the highest crop yield among all of the cereals, hence it is called the 'queen of cereal crops.
2. Chromosome Numbers and Species:-
Note:- Out of the above, only Zea mays is a cultivated species. The remaining three are wild species collectively called 'Teosinte'.
3. Types of Maize:- 5 types –
4. Center of Origin:-
· Primary Center of Origin:- Mexico
· Secondary Center of Origin:- China
Cultivation of Maize:-
1. Climate requirements:-
> Maize requires the warmth and humid climate.
i. For germination is 21 degree C.
ii. For growth is 32 degree C.
2. Soil type:-
> Maize thrives better on well drained ,sandy- loam to silty – loam soils.
> Land Preparation:-
- Give four to five ploughings and plankings to make the seed–bed free from clods and weeds.
- Use mould board plough ,disc harrow or cultivator for the 1st cultivation.
3. Time of sowing:-
> Last week of May to end of June.
> Seed rate:- Use 7 kg seed for popcorn and 8 kg per acre for other varieties.
4. Improved Varieties:-
i. PMH 11:- It matures in 95 days and its average yield is 22.0 q/acre.
ii. Parbhat:- It yields about 17.5 q/acre.
iii. PMH 1:- It matures in 95 days and average yield is 21 q/acre.
iv. PMH 2:- It matures in about 83 days and its average yield is 18 q/acre.
v. Punjab Sweet Corn 1:- It matures in about 95-100 Days . Its average green ear and grain yield is 50 and 13 q/acre.
5. Weed Management:-
> Culture:- Give two hoeings about 15 to 30 days after sowing with khurpa /kasaula/wheel-hoe etc.
> Chemical:- For control of dila/motha, apply 400ml per acre 2,4-D amines salt 58 SL as post emergence 20-25days after sowing in 150 L of water.
6. Irrigation management:-
> Generally, 4 -6 irrigations are required depending upon rainfall.
> Critical stages for irrigation – Tasseling and Silking.
7. Nutrient management:-
> Hybrid variety:- 120:50:40 NPK kg /ha.
> Composite variety:- 100:40: 30 NPK kg /ha.
> Paddy straw compost @ 180 kg per acre along with recommended dose of fertilizers can be alternate to FYM.
8. Harvesting and Threshing:-
> The maize crop is ready for harvesting even when the stalks and leaves are some what green but the husk cover has dried and turned brown.
> Maize shelled when the moisture content ranges between 15 to 20 %.
Improvement of Maize:-
1. Pollination:-
Ø Pollination in maize is by air.
Ø Maize is mainly a cross pollinated crop. It has 95% cross pollination and 5% self pollination.
Ø The following adaptations are found in maize plant for cross pollination:-
i. Unisexual flowers
ii. Monoecious plant
iii. Difference in maturation times of male and female inflorescence
iv. Silk fibers are receptive throughout their full length
v. Infinite pollen production
Ø Protandry is found in maize. Flowering in tassels takes place 2 days before cob.
Ø Maize shed pollens continuously up to 14 days.
Ø The viability of pollens lasts for 24 hours.
Ø The flowering of the female spikelets begins 2–5 days after the full opening of the tassel.
Ø In maize, the entire style acts as a stigma. The style remains receptive throughout its length for 14 days.
2. Breeding Objectives:-
a. Higher Yield:- It depends on the following factors -
i. Number of cobs per plant
ii. Size of cob
iii. Number of queues per cob
iv. Number of grains per queue
v. Size of grains
b. Adaptation:-
> Maize is a Short Day Plant. That is, for flowering it requires 8 hours of light and 16 hours of darkness.
> Flowering in maize depends on 2 factors -
i. Photoperiod
ii. Temperature
> Therefore, the production of photo-insensitive and early maturation varieties in maize is the purpose of breeding.
c. Quality:-
· Maize seeds contain 10% protein, of which 8% is Prolamin protein called Zein.
· Protein lacks lysine and tryptophen amino acids.
· Seeds also lack vitamin-B3, the deficiency of which causes Pilegra disease.
· The yield has an inverse relationship with the amount of protein. Increasing the amount of protein decreases the yield. The reason for this is that the cost of protein synthesis is high. More photosynthesis is required.
· The yield has a direct relationship with the amount of starch. Increasing the amount of starch increases the yield. The reason for this is that the cost of starch synthesis is low. Less photosynthesis is required.
d. Heat and Drought Resistance:-
· At temperatures above 38 ° C, the viability of pollens decreases.
· The rate of increase in cob length decreases in drought conditions. By the time cob comes out, pollens are over.
· Therefore, temperature resistant and drought resistant varieties should be developed in maize crop.
e. Disease Resistance:- Several types of diseases can occur in the maize crop which can cause economic loss. Developing resistance against these diseases is also objective of plant breeding.
i. Leaf Spot
ii. Leaf Blight
iii. Downy Mildew
iv. Rust
v. Sheath Blight
f. Insect Resistance:- Several types of insect pests can cause damage to the maize crop which leads to economic loss. Hence one objective is to generate resistance against these insect pests.
i. Stem Borer
ii. Cut Worm
iii. Shoot Fly
iv. Leaf Roller
v. Aphids
vi. Grass Hopper
3. Breeding Methods:-
a. Introduction:- Eto Amarillo (From Mexico to India)
b. Variety:- The improved variety 'Vikram' was developed by hybridizing the native variety 'basi' with the introduced variety 'Eto Amarillo'.
c. Double Cross Hybridization:-
- Punjab Hybrid - 1
- Punjab Hybrid - 3
- Ganga - 1
- Ganga - 101
- Deccan
- Ranjit
d. Composite Varieties:-
- Kisan
- Amber
- Jawahar
- Sona
- Vijay
- Proteina
- Ratan
- Shakti
- Vikas
- Navjot
- Dhawal
- Renuka
- NLD
